27-10-2014, 03:29 PM
[301] See Scott D. Sampson's Dinosaur Odyssey, pp. 3-6.
[302] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 69-70.
[303] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 255-256. See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 158-159.
[304] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 146-147.
[305] See Sterling J. Nesbitt, et al.'s "The oldest dinosaur? A Middle Triassic dinosauriform from Tanzania", Biology Letters, February 23, 2013, volume 9, number 1.
[306] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, p. 168.
[307] See Joel Achenbach's When Dinosaurs Ruled, National Geographic special edition, 2014, p. 61.
[308] See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 142-147.
[309] See Scott D. Sampson's Dinosaur Odyssey, chapter 12. See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 137-143.
[310] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 129-130.
[311] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 94-95.
[312] See Scott D. Sampson's Dinosaur Odyssey, pp. 183-184.
[313] See John R. Horner, et al.'s "How Dinosaurs Grew so Large and so Small", in Scientific American's special collector's edition on dinosaurs, titled, Dinosaurs! How they lived; Why they Died, Summer 2014, pp. 4-11.
[314] See Scott D. Sampson's Dinosaur Odyssey, chapter 11. See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, chapter 12.
[315] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 171-183.
[316] See Patrick M. O'Connor and Leon P. A. M. Claessens's "Basic avian pulmonary design and flow-through ventilation in non-avian theropod dinosaurs", July 14, 2005, Nature, volume 436, pp. 253-256.
[317] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 199-213.
[318] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 76-83.
[319] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 168, 256.
[320] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 158-160.
[321] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, p. 158.
[322] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 64-69.
[323] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, p. 313. See Scott D. Sampson's Dinosaur Odyssey, chapter 12. See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 142-147.
[324] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 201-204.
[325] See Caroline M.B. Jaraula, et al.'s "Elevated pCO[SUB]2[/SUB] leading to Late Triassic extinction, persistent photic zone euxinia, and rising sea levels", Geology, published online July 11, 2013.
[326] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, p. 152.
[327] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 195-197.
[328] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, p. 285. See Kristina A. Curry Rogers and Michael D. D'Emic's "Triumph of the Titans", in Scientific American's special collector's edition on dinosaurs, titled, Dinosaurs! How they lived; Why they Died, Summer 2014, pp. 12-19.
[329] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 171-173.
[330] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 168-174.
[331] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 284-285.
[332] See Sharon Levy's Once and Future Giants, pp. 35-64.
[333] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 191-197.
[334] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, p. 285.
[335] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 286-287.
[336] See Richard O. Prum and Alan H. Brush's "Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird?", in Scientific American's special collector's edition on dinosaurs, titled, Dinosaurs! How they lived; Why they Died, Summer 2014, pp. 76-85.
[337] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, chapters 10 and 11. See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 173-179.
[338] See Nick Lane's Power, Sex, Suicide, chapter 9.
[339] See Nick Lane's Oxygen, p. 255.
[340] See Nick Lane's Power, Sex, Suicide, pp. 269-273, 304-307.
[341] See Bas van de Schootbrugge, et al.'s "Microbes, mud and methane: cause and consequence of recurrent Early Jurassic anoxia following the end-Triassic mass extinction", Paleontology, July 2013, volume 56, issue 4, pp. 685-709.
[342] About the only exceptions are oil deposits formed along the coast of California in the Miocene Epoch, about 20 mya, with a formation near Ventura, where I was raised, with one of the youngest, of Pleistocene age, about a kilometer or two away from the house where I grew up.
[343] See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 161-166.
[344] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 216-218.
[345] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, p. 219.
[346] See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 166-168. See Dorrik Stow's Vanished Ocean, p. 139.
[347] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, p. 285.
[348] Recent discoveries on Madagascar throw doubt on some of the assumptions of Northern Hemisphere origins for some mammals, reptiles, and dinosaurs, as well as when certain features evolved. See John Flynn and André R. Wyss's "Madagascar's Mesozoic Secrets", in Scientific American's special collector's edition on dinosaurs, titled, Dinosaurs! How they lived; Why they Died, Summer 2014, pp. 28-37.
[349] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, p. 282.
[350] See Patricia Vickers-Rocha and Thomas Hewitt Richs's "Dinosaurs of Polar Australia", in Scientific American's special collector's edition on dinosaurs, titled, Dinosaurs! How they lived; Why they Died, Summer 2014, pp. 46-53. See Anthony R. Fiorillo's "Dinosaurs of Arctic Alaska", in Scientific American's special collector's edition on dinosaurs, titled, Dinosaurs! How they lived; Why they Died, Summer 2014, pp. 54-61.
[351] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 219-221.
[352] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 214-216.
[353] See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 171-183.
[354] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 282-288. See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 191-197.
[355] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, p. 287.
[356] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 298-299.
[357] See Peter Ward's Under a Green Sky, chapter 1.
[358] See Peter Ward's Under a Green Sky, pp. 107-114.
[359] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 322-343. See a more uncertain assessment in Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 212-219.
[360] See Peter Ward's Under a Green Sky, chapter 3.
[361] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 50.
[362] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 55.
[363] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 201-202.
[364] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 200-201.
[365] See Leslie C. Aiello and Peter Wheeler's "The Expensive-Tissue Hypothesis", Current Anthropology, volume 36, number 2, April 1995, pp. 199-221.
[366] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 200-201.
[367] See Edward L. Simpson et al.'s "Predatory digging behavior by dinosaurs", Geology, volume 38, number 8, pp. 699-702. See also this Smithsonian article.
[368] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 203-204.
[369] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, p. 140.
[370] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 207-210.
[371] See Stephen B. Vander Wall's "The Evolutionary Ecology of Nut Dispersal", The Botanical Review, January-March 2001, volume 67, issue 1.
[372] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 57. See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 221-224.
[373] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 226-227.
[374] See Felisa A. Smith, et al.'s "The Evolution of Maximum Body Size of Terrestrial Mammals", Science, November 26, 2010, volume 330, Number 6008, pp. 1216-1219
[375] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, p. 228.
[376] See Brian Fagan's The Great Warming, pp. 55-56.
[377] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 67-70.
[378] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 230-231.
[379] See David Beerling's The Emerald Planet, chapter 6.
[380] See David Beerling's The Emerald Planet, p. 148.
[381] See David Beerling's The Emerald Planet, chapter 7, titled "Paradise Lost." The subtitle of Donald Prothero's The Eocene-Oligocene Transition is "Paradise Lost."
[382] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 87.
[383] See Dorrik Stow's Vanished Ocean, pp. 259-264.
[384] See Donald Prothero's The Eocene-Oligocene Transition, p. 76.
[385] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 115.
[386] See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 227-234.
[387] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 143-145.
[388] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 145-147.
[389] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 150.
[390] See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 233-234.
[391] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 163-164.
[392] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 167.
[393] See, for instance, Jonathan P. LaRiviere, et al.'s "Late Miocene decoupling of oceanic warmth and atmospheric carbon dioxide forcing", Nature, volume 486, pp. 97-100, June 7, 2012. See Mark Pagani, et al.'s "High Earth-system climate sensitivity determined from Pliocene carbon dioxide concentrations", Nature Geoscience, volume 3, published online December 20, 2009. It can also be particularly instructive to see how the climate change "skeptics" react to such findings, such as here. Note a defense of the fossil fuel industry at the end of that response. That kind of response is typical of those who openly defend the fossil fuel industry (and usually funded by them, as that "skeptical" organization is) by their "business as usual" climate change "skepticism."
[394] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 181, 211-214.
[395] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 188-191.
[396] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, p. 230.
[397] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 247.
[398] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 244-246. See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 199-200.
[399] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 204.
[400] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 212.
[401] See Peter Ward and David Brownlee's The Life and Death of Planet Earth for an exploration of those ideas, and see this presentation for some of the ideas in their work.
[402] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 214-223.
[403] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 214-218.
[404] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 230.
[405] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 231.
[406] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 247.
[407] See Dorrik Stow's Vanished Ocean, pp. 259-264. See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 225-230.
[408] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 229-230.
[409] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 253.
[410] On the Great American Biotic Interchange, see Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 241-244, and Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 250-256. See Michael O. Woodburn's ""The Great American Biotic Interchange: Dispersals, Tectonics, Climate, Sea Level and Holding Pens", Journal of Mammalian Evolution, December 2010, volume 17, issue 4, pp. 245-264.
[411] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 247-250.
[412] There is a pronounced resistance in anthropological circles toward the idea of culture among great apes. One chimpanzee researcher, Victoria, Horner, said, in frustration: "In anthropological terms culture is the human niche…These things are so exclusive from the get-go. If we want to understand our place in the animal kingdom, we need to understand that the chimp/human border is so slim. Culture is just the next step. At what point are people going to give in and say, Yes, we are apes?' And be able to handle that? Darwin's famous quote is that it's a difference of degree, not of kind. People are just hell-bent on it being a difference in kind." That quote is from Jon Cohen's Almost Chimpanzee, p. 175.
[413] See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree for an account of the history of Proconsul research, from the first fossil discoveries to 21[SUP]st[/SUP] century research and findings.
[414] See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree, pp. 37-42.
[415] See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree, pp. 186-187.
[416] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 90-91.
[417] See Clive Finlayson's The Humans Who Went Extinct, pp. 20-21.
[418] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, p. 255.
[419] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 96-97. See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree, p. 163.
[420] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 255-256. See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree, pp. 167, 196-199.
[421] See Clive Finlayson's The Humans Who Went Extinct, p. 9.
[422] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 100-103.
[423] See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree, p. 194. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, p. 2.
[424] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, p. 103.
[425] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, p. 103. See Clive Finlayson's The Humans Who Went Extinct, pp. 10-11.
[426] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 104-105.
[427] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 110-113.
[428] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 41.
[429] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 14-16.
[430] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 114-115.
[431] See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males, chapter 3.
[432] See, for instance, the human evolutionary tree in Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 42.
[433] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 98-102.
[434] See Thomas Suddendorf's The Gap, chapter 3.
[435] This is a prominent theme in Thomas Suddendorf's The Gap.
[436] See abstract of P.M. Kappeler's "Patterns of sexual dimorphism in body weight among prosimian primates", Folia Primatol (Basel), 1991; issue 3, volume 57, pp. 132-146.
[437] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, p. 44.
[438] See Richard C. Francis's Why Men Won't Ask for Directions. See Steven Pinker's The Blank Slate, chapter 6.
[439] See Richard W. Young's "Evolution of the human hand: the role of throwing and clubbing", Journal of Anatomy, January 2003, volume 2, issue 1, pp. 165-174.
[440] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 114, 126.
[441] See Peter B. deMenocal's "Climate Shocks", in Scientific American's special evolution issue titled, Evolution, The Human Saga, pp. 48-53, September 2014. See also his "Climate and Human Evolution", Science, volume 331, February 4, 2011, pp. 540-542. See also "A grassy trend in human ancestors' diets", ScienceDaily, June 3, 2013. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, chapter 3.
[442] See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree, pp. 109-112. See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, p. 125.
[443] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, p. 128. See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 47.
[444] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 47. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, pp. 57-61.
[445] See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males, pp. 46-47.
[446] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, pp. 55-60.
[447] See Stanley H. Ambrose's "Paleolithic Technology and Human Evolution", Science, March 2, 2001, volume 291, number 5509, pp. 1748-1753.
[448] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 13-14.
[449] See Dario Maestripieri's Machiavellian Intelligence, p. 61.
[450] See Dario Maestripieri's Machiavellian Intelligence, p. 144.
[451] See Elisabetta Visalberghi and Dorothy Fragaszy's "Learning how to Forage: Socially Biased Individual Learning and Niche Construction' in Wild Capuchin Monkeys", chapter six of Frans B. M. de Wall and Pier Francesco Ferrari, eds., The Primate Mind.
[452] See Susan Perry and Joseph H. Manson's Manipulative monkeys; The Capuchins of Lomas Barbudal, chapter 9.
[453] See Susan Perry and Joseph H. Manson's Manipulative monkeys; The Capuchins of Lomas Barbudal, chapter 8.
[454] See Carel van Schaik's "Why are some animals so smart?", in Scientific American, special edition titled "Becoming Human", September 2006.
[455] See Thomas Suddendorf's The Gap, chapter 9.
[456] See Marco Iacoboni's "The Human Mirror Neuron System and Its Role in Imitation and Empathy", chapter three of Frans B. M. de Wall and Pier Francesco Ferrari, eds., The Primate Mind.
[457] See Gary Stix's The "It" Factor", in Scientific American's special evolution issue titled, Evolution, The Human Saga, pp. 72-79, September 2014. See Steven Pinker's The Blank Slate, chapter 4. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, pp. 213-216.
[458] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, p. 42.
[459] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, pp. 56-57.
[460] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, p. 208.
[461] See Kimberley J. Hockings, et al.'s "Chimpanzees Share Forbidden Fruit", PLoS ONE, Published online September 12, 2007.
[462] Suzana Herculano-Houzel and Jon H. Kaas's "Gorilla and Orangutan Brains Conform to the Primate Cellular Scaling Rules: Implications for Human Evolution", Brain, Behavior, and Evolution, February 2011; volume 7, number 1, pp. 3344.
[463] See Karina Fonseca-Azevedo and Suzana Herculano-Houzel's "Metabolic constraint imposes tradeoff between body size and number of brain neurons in human evolution", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, November 6, 2012, volume 109, number 45, pp. 1857118576.
[464] R.I.M Dunbar and Susanne Shultz's "Understanding primate brain evolution", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, April 29, 2007, volume 362, number 1480, pp. 649-658.
[465] See M. Dworak et al.'s "Sleep and Brain Energy Levels: ATP changes during sleep", The Journal of Neuroscience, June 30, 2010, volume 30, number 26, pp. 9007-9016.
[466] See Karin Isler and Carel van Schaik's "Metabolic costs of brain size evolution", Biology Letters, 2006 December 22, 2006, volume 2, number 4, pp. 557560.
[467] See Michael D. Sockol, et al.'s "Chimpanzee locomotor energetics and the origin of human bipedalism", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, July 24, 2007, volume 104, number 30, pp. 1226512269. See Herman Pontzera, et al.'s "The metabolic cost of walking in humans, chimpanzees, and early hominins", Journal of Human Evolution, volume 56, issue 1, January 2009, pp. 4354. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, pp. 15-16.
[468] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, p. 17.
[469] See Leslie C. Aiello and Peter Wheeler's "The Expensive-Tissue Hypothesis," Current Anthropology, volume 36, number 2, April 1995, pp. 199-221.
[470] See Leslie C. Aiello and Peter Wheeler's "The Expensive-Tissue Hypothesis," Current Anthropology, volume 36, number 2, April 1995, pp. 199-221.
[471] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 117-118.
[472] See Dario Maestripieri's Machiavellian Intelligence, pp. 38-42, 72-73.
[473] See Ana Navarrete et al.'s "Energetics and the evolution of human brain size", Nature, December 1, 2011, volume 480, pp. 91-94.
[474] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 100-102.
[475] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 118-119.
[476] See Richard Wrangham's "Evolution of Coalitionary Killing", Yearbook Of Physical Anthropology, volume 110, Issue Supplement 29, pp. 130. 1999. See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males for an examination of male-inflicted violence in great apes.
[477] See Richard Wrangham's "Evolution of Coalitionary Killing", Yearbook Of Physical Anthropology, volume 110, Issue Supplement 29, pp. 130.
[478] See Nicolas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 22-27. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, pp. 109-110.
[479] See, for instance, Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, pp. 64, 68. In Clive Finlayson's The Humans Who Went Extinct, he strenuously argues that modern humans had nothing to do with the disappearance of Neanderthals, but the notions that modern humans drove Neanderthals to extinction, as well as Homo erectus in Asia, are constantly debated today.
[480] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 42; he calls the human family tree depicted there "highly speculative." Or see all the question marks in this human family tree.
[481] See Tracy L. Kivell, et al.'s "Australopithecus sediba Hand Demonstrates Mosaic Evolution of Locomotor and Manipulative Abilities", Science, September 9, 2011, volume 333, number 6048, pp. 1411-1417.
[482] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 64.
[483] See Johan Goudsblom's Fire and Civilization, p. 19.
[484] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 190-191.
[485] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 190-194.
[486] See Frederick L Coolidge and Thomas Wynn's "The effects of the tree-to-ground sleep transition in the evolution of cognition in early Homo", Before Farming: the archaeology and anthropology of hunter-gatherers, 2006, issue 4, article 11.
[487] See Jon Cohen's Almost Chimpanzee, pp. 277-284.
[488] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, p. 90.
[489] See Chris Organ, et al.'s "Phylogenetic rate shifts in feeding time during the evolution of Homo", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, August 30, 2011, volume 108, number 35, pp. 1455514559.
[490] See Karina Fonseca-Azevedo and Suzana Herculano-Houzel's "Metabolic constraint imposes tradeoff between body size and number of brain neurons in human evolution", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, November 6, 2012, volume 109, number 45, pp. 1857118576.
[491] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 92-93.
[492] See Francesco Berna, et al.'s "Microstratigraphic evidence of in situ fire in the Acheulean strata of Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape province, South Africa", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, May 15, 2012, volume 109, number 20, pp. 75937594. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, p. 112.
[493] See Peter Bellwood's First Migrants, pp. 47-48.
[494] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, p. 225.
[495] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 17-19.
[496] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 47-48.
[497] See Ian Tattersall's If I Had a Hammer", in Scientific American's special evolution issue titled, Evolution, The Human Saga, pp. 55-59, September 2014. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, chapter 9.
[498] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, p. 100.
[499] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 141-146.
[500] See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males, p. 224.
[501] See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males, p. 148.
[502] See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males, p. 159.
[503] See Jon Cohen's Almost Chimpanzee, p. 260.
[504] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 144-145.
[505] See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males, pp. 146-151, 166.
[506] See Tommaso Paoli's "The Absence of Sexual Coercion in Bonobos", chapter 16 of Martin Muller and Richard Wrangham, eds., Sexual Coercion in Primates and Humans.
[507] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 144-147.
[508] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 154-158. See Lawrence H. Keeley's War Before Civilization, pp. 103-106. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, pp. 152-154, 172-173.
[509] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, p. 93.
[510] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, p. 268.
[511] See Peter Bellwood's First Migrants, p. 51.
[512] See Chris Stringer's Lone Survivors, pp. 199-201.
[513] See Peter Bellwood's First Migrants, chapter 3.
[514] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, chapters 4 and 5.
[515] See Nicholas Wade's The Faith Instinct, pp. 119-123.
[516] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 16.
[517] The source for the below list is from an anthropology course. See another summary in the appendix of Steven Pinker's The Blank Slate.
UP (the Universal People) have mastered language, and UP's languages all have universal traits, such as:
UP's infants have a fear of loud noises, and by nearly one year of age, they fear all strangers.
UP have a natural fear of snakes.
UP are seen by their societies as individuals who commit acts intentionally and have a sense of personal responsibility for their actions.
UP have a similar conception of age, which is not the only way to think about age.
The primary social unit of UP is mothers and their children.
UP have a sexual division of labor, with women doing most childrearing and men usually performing strenuous/dangerous labor to economically provide for the society and/or social unit, or protect it.
UP have institutions that grant males preferential sexual access to females; and all have standards of appropriate potential mates the incest taboo is not quite universal, but standards of appropriate unions are.
UP have standards of sexual attractiveness which usually relate to a woman's ability to bear healthy offspring and a man's ability to economically provide for and protect the primary social unit.
UP have hygiene standards;
UP's men commit most violence and men dominate all societies.
UP's fathers and young sons compete for the mother's attention, which creates a tension that has been called the Oedipus complex.
UP's senior kin are partly responsible for socializing offspring, and UP recognize kin relationships;
UP's children learn partly via mimicry, and play and fight; their activities help develop adult skills.
UP dance and make music, with those activities often conjoined, and UP have music for children.
UP's societies control fire and make tools and shelter.
UP are territorial and judge others by their own standards.
UP societies have complex political scheming.
UP engage in reciprocal economic exchanges, and can retaliate when exchanges are unequal or other personal inequalities are not addressed.
UP plan for the future.
UP distinguish right from wrong, and regulate their public affairs.
UP groups have leaders, whom the group members want to be generous.
UP societies are never democratic or autocratic, so all are oligarchic.
UP make promises and can empathize.
Envy is common among UP, and all societies try to minimize it.
UP think that they are more objective than they really are.
UP have laws, particularly against murder and rape, although in warfare those strictures are often relaxed.
People who offend the laws are punished.
Conflict is common, and UP's societies try to reduce it, and conflicts are structured around in-group versus out-group dynamics, with different ethical standards for dealing with in-group and out-group people.
UP have etiquette and hospitality as ideals.
UP's societies have customary behaviors.
UP's societies have standard eating times and other daily routines, and occasions for feasts.
UP's sexual activities and bodily excretion are conducted in private.
UP have fashion and style their hair.
UP have taboos on certain foods and utterances.
UP's societies anthropomorphize phenomena and have beliefs that are demonstrably false.
UP practiced magic to protect life and attract the opposite sex, and have theories of luck.
UP have rituals, and some are regarding status changes, such as rites of passage and marriage; they mourn their dead.
UP have supernatural beliefs and believe in extra-physical activities.
UP are still materialists, and value property and how it transfers to others, including descendants
UP dream and attempt to interpret the dreams.
UP try to explain sickness and death, and know that they are connected. They try to heal the sick and use medicines.
UP practice divination and try to control the weather.
[518] See David Cogswell's Chomsky for Beginners, p. 44.
[519] See Randy Allen Harris's The Linguistics Wars.
[520] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 37-40.
[521] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, chapter 3.
[522] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, chapter 5.
[523] See Nicholas Wade's The Faith Instinct, chapter 9.
[524] See Steven L. Kuhn's and Mary C. Steiner's "The antiquity of hunter-gatherers", p. 102 in chapter 5 of Hunter-Gatherers: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, Catherine Panter-Brick, et al., eds.
[525] See Joachim Radkau's Nature and Power, p. 47.
[526] See Shepard Krech III's, The Ecological Indian, chapter 5.
[527] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 286-287. See Sharon Levy's Once and Future Giants, pp. 79-105. See Jared Diamond's Guns, Germs, and Steel, pp. 42-44. See Tim Flannery's The Future Eaters, pp. 180-194. See Joachim Radkau's Nature and Power, p. 47. See William F. Ruddiman's Plows, Plagues, and Petroleum, chapter 6. See Charles A.S. Hall and Kent A. Klitgaard's Energy and the Wealth of Nations, p. 44.
[528] Paul L. Koch and Anthony D. Barnosky's "Late Quaternary Extinctions: State of the Debate", The Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 2006, volume 37, pp. 215-250. A few months after this chapter was first drafted, a new paper confirmed my views. The authors cited some of the very same papers that I thought were seriously flawed, which concluded that climate change killed off the Australian and South American megafauna, for instance. See Christopher Sandom, et al.'s "Global late Quaternary megafauna extinctions linked to humans, not climate change", Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, July 2014, volume 281, number 1787, 20133254. The paper was first published on June 4, 2014.
[529] See Clive Finlayson's The Humans Who Went Extinct, chapter 4.
[530] The loyal opposition to the idea of human agency in the megafauna extinctions is led by Donald Grayson, who has challenged Paul Martin's overkill hypothesis from the early days. See Sharon Levy's Once and Future Giants, chapter 1. A recent paper that Grayson coauthored is Stephen Wroe, et al.'s "Climate change frames debate over the extinction of megafauna in Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea)", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2013. Wroe has long challenged the notion of human-caused megafauna extinctions. See, for instance, Stephen Wroe's "Would the Australian megafauna be extinct had there been no climate change?" Quaternary Science Reviews, 2007, volume 26, pp. 565567. See Wroe's paper coauthored with Judith Field, "A review of the evidence for a human role in the extinction of Australian megafauna and an alternative interpretation", Quaternary Science Reviews, 2006, volume 25, pp. 26922703. They have made careers out of challenging the notion of human agency in Australian megafauna extinctions.
[531] See Gavin J. Prideaux, et al.'s "An arid-adapted middle Pleistocene vertebrate fauna from south-central Australia", Nature, January 25, 2007, volume 445, pp. 422-425. See Richard G. Roberts, et al.'s "New Ages for the Last Australian Megafauna: Continent-Wide Extinction About 46,000 Years Ago", Science, June 8, 2001, volume 292, pp. 1888-1892. See Susan Rule, et al.'s "The Aftermath of Megafaunal Extinction: Ecosystem Transformation in Pleistocene Australia", Science, March 23, 2012, volume 335, number 6075, pp. 1483-1486. See David Biello's "Big Kill, Not Big Chill, Finished Off Giant Kangaroos", Scientific American, March 22, 2012.
[532] See Lawrence H. Keeley's War Before Civilization, pp. 5-15.
[533] See Lawrence H. Keeley's War Before Civilization, pp. vii-24.
[534] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 60-63.
[535] See Irina Pugach, et al.'s "Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, January 29, 2013, volume 110, number 5, pp. 1803-1808.
[536] See Raymond C. Kelly's Warless Societies and the Origin of War, chapter 3.
[537] See Nicholas Wade's The Faith Instinct, chapter 5.
[538] See Robert Boyd, et al.'s "Coordinated Punishment of Defectors Sustains Cooperation and Can Proliferate When Rare", Science, April 30, 2010, Volume 328, number 5978, pp. 617-620. See also this article. Controlled experiments have shown that people are vigilant of cheaters and will punish them if they can, even at significant cost to themselves.
[539] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 67.
[540] See Tim Flannery's The Future Eaters, pp. 189-190, relating an anecdote in which Charles Darwin watched a boy kill his dinner in the Galapagos Islands by killing birds that came to a well to drink. The area had been settled for several years, and the boy had already made it a regular practice to kill his meals that way in the same place.
[541] See Tim Flannery's The Future Eaters, pp. 187-194.
[542] See Michael F. Hammer, et. al.'s "Genetic evidence for archaic admixture in Africa", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, September 13, 2011, volume 108, number 37, pp. 15123-15128.
[543] See Peter Bellwood's First Migrants, p. 67. See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 94-95.
[544] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, pp. 96-105. See Clive Finlayson's The Humans Who Went Extinct, chapters 6 and 7. See Brian Fagan's Cro-Magnon, pp. 130-131. See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 164-165.
[545] See S. Péan's "Mammoth and subsistence practices during the Mid Upper Palaeolithic of Central Europe (Moravia, Czech Republic)", The Proceedings of The World of Elephants - International Congress, Rome 2001. See Brian Fagan's Cro-Magnon, chapter 9. See abstract of JiÅ™Ä±Ì Svoboda, et al.'s "Mammoth bone deposits and subsistence practices during Mid-Upper Palaeolithic in Central Europe: three cases from Moravia and Poland", Quaternary International, 2005, Volumes 126-128, 2005, pp.
[302] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 69-70.
[303] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 255-256. See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 158-159.
[304] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 146-147.
[305] See Sterling J. Nesbitt, et al.'s "The oldest dinosaur? A Middle Triassic dinosauriform from Tanzania", Biology Letters, February 23, 2013, volume 9, number 1.
[306] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, p. 168.
[307] See Joel Achenbach's When Dinosaurs Ruled, National Geographic special edition, 2014, p. 61.
[308] See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 142-147.
[309] See Scott D. Sampson's Dinosaur Odyssey, chapter 12. See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 137-143.
[310] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 129-130.
[311] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 94-95.
[312] See Scott D. Sampson's Dinosaur Odyssey, pp. 183-184.
[313] See John R. Horner, et al.'s "How Dinosaurs Grew so Large and so Small", in Scientific American's special collector's edition on dinosaurs, titled, Dinosaurs! How they lived; Why they Died, Summer 2014, pp. 4-11.
[314] See Scott D. Sampson's Dinosaur Odyssey, chapter 11. See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, chapter 12.
[315] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 171-183.
[316] See Patrick M. O'Connor and Leon P. A. M. Claessens's "Basic avian pulmonary design and flow-through ventilation in non-avian theropod dinosaurs", July 14, 2005, Nature, volume 436, pp. 253-256.
[317] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 199-213.
[318] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 76-83.
[319] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 168, 256.
[320] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 158-160.
[321] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, p. 158.
[322] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 64-69.
[323] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, p. 313. See Scott D. Sampson's Dinosaur Odyssey, chapter 12. See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 142-147.
[324] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 201-204.
[325] See Caroline M.B. Jaraula, et al.'s "Elevated pCO[SUB]2[/SUB] leading to Late Triassic extinction, persistent photic zone euxinia, and rising sea levels", Geology, published online July 11, 2013.
[326] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, p. 152.
[327] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 195-197.
[328] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, p. 285. See Kristina A. Curry Rogers and Michael D. D'Emic's "Triumph of the Titans", in Scientific American's special collector's edition on dinosaurs, titled, Dinosaurs! How they lived; Why they Died, Summer 2014, pp. 12-19.
[329] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 171-173.
[330] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 168-174.
[331] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 284-285.
[332] See Sharon Levy's Once and Future Giants, pp. 35-64.
[333] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 191-197.
[334] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, p. 285.
[335] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 286-287.
[336] See Richard O. Prum and Alan H. Brush's "Which Came First, the Feather or the Bird?", in Scientific American's special collector's edition on dinosaurs, titled, Dinosaurs! How they lived; Why they Died, Summer 2014, pp. 76-85.
[337] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, chapters 10 and 11. See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 173-179.
[338] See Nick Lane's Power, Sex, Suicide, chapter 9.
[339] See Nick Lane's Oxygen, p. 255.
[340] See Nick Lane's Power, Sex, Suicide, pp. 269-273, 304-307.
[341] See Bas van de Schootbrugge, et al.'s "Microbes, mud and methane: cause and consequence of recurrent Early Jurassic anoxia following the end-Triassic mass extinction", Paleontology, July 2013, volume 56, issue 4, pp. 685-709.
[342] About the only exceptions are oil deposits formed along the coast of California in the Miocene Epoch, about 20 mya, with a formation near Ventura, where I was raised, with one of the youngest, of Pleistocene age, about a kilometer or two away from the house where I grew up.
[343] See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 161-166.
[344] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 216-218.
[345] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, p. 219.
[346] See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 166-168. See Dorrik Stow's Vanished Ocean, p. 139.
[347] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, p. 285.
[348] Recent discoveries on Madagascar throw doubt on some of the assumptions of Northern Hemisphere origins for some mammals, reptiles, and dinosaurs, as well as when certain features evolved. See John Flynn and André R. Wyss's "Madagascar's Mesozoic Secrets", in Scientific American's special collector's edition on dinosaurs, titled, Dinosaurs! How they lived; Why they Died, Summer 2014, pp. 28-37.
[349] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, p. 282.
[350] See Patricia Vickers-Rocha and Thomas Hewitt Richs's "Dinosaurs of Polar Australia", in Scientific American's special collector's edition on dinosaurs, titled, Dinosaurs! How they lived; Why they Died, Summer 2014, pp. 46-53. See Anthony R. Fiorillo's "Dinosaurs of Arctic Alaska", in Scientific American's special collector's edition on dinosaurs, titled, Dinosaurs! How they lived; Why they Died, Summer 2014, pp. 54-61.
[351] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 219-221.
[352] See Peter Ward's Out of Thin Air, pp. 214-216.
[353] See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 171-183.
[354] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 282-288. See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 191-197.
[355] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, p. 287.
[356] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 298-299.
[357] See Peter Ward's Under a Green Sky, chapter 1.
[358] See Peter Ward's Under a Green Sky, pp. 107-114.
[359] See David E. Fastovsky and David B. Weishampel's Dinosaurs, A Concise Natural History, pp. 322-343. See a more uncertain assessment in Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 212-219.
[360] See Peter Ward's Under a Green Sky, chapter 3.
[361] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 50.
[362] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 55.
[363] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 201-202.
[364] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 200-201.
[365] See Leslie C. Aiello and Peter Wheeler's "The Expensive-Tissue Hypothesis", Current Anthropology, volume 36, number 2, April 1995, pp. 199-221.
[366] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 200-201.
[367] See Edward L. Simpson et al.'s "Predatory digging behavior by dinosaurs", Geology, volume 38, number 8, pp. 699-702. See also this Smithsonian article.
[368] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 203-204.
[369] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, p. 140.
[370] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 207-210.
[371] See Stephen B. Vander Wall's "The Evolutionary Ecology of Nut Dispersal", The Botanical Review, January-March 2001, volume 67, issue 1.
[372] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 57. See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 221-224.
[373] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 226-227.
[374] See Felisa A. Smith, et al.'s "The Evolution of Maximum Body Size of Terrestrial Mammals", Science, November 26, 2010, volume 330, Number 6008, pp. 1216-1219
[375] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, p. 228.
[376] See Brian Fagan's The Great Warming, pp. 55-56.
[377] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 67-70.
[378] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 230-231.
[379] See David Beerling's The Emerald Planet, chapter 6.
[380] See David Beerling's The Emerald Planet, p. 148.
[381] See David Beerling's The Emerald Planet, chapter 7, titled "Paradise Lost." The subtitle of Donald Prothero's The Eocene-Oligocene Transition is "Paradise Lost."
[382] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 87.
[383] See Dorrik Stow's Vanished Ocean, pp. 259-264.
[384] See Donald Prothero's The Eocene-Oligocene Transition, p. 76.
[385] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 115.
[386] See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 227-234.
[387] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 143-145.
[388] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 145-147.
[389] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 150.
[390] See A. Hallam and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinction and their Aftermath, pp. 233-234.
[391] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 163-164.
[392] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 167.
[393] See, for instance, Jonathan P. LaRiviere, et al.'s "Late Miocene decoupling of oceanic warmth and atmospheric carbon dioxide forcing", Nature, volume 486, pp. 97-100, June 7, 2012. See Mark Pagani, et al.'s "High Earth-system climate sensitivity determined from Pliocene carbon dioxide concentrations", Nature Geoscience, volume 3, published online December 20, 2009. It can also be particularly instructive to see how the climate change "skeptics" react to such findings, such as here. Note a defense of the fossil fuel industry at the end of that response. That kind of response is typical of those who openly defend the fossil fuel industry (and usually funded by them, as that "skeptical" organization is) by their "business as usual" climate change "skepticism."
[394] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 181, 211-214.
[395] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 188-191.
[396] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, p. 230.
[397] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 247.
[398] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 244-246. See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 199-200.
[399] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 204.
[400] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 212.
[401] See Peter Ward and David Brownlee's The Life and Death of Planet Earth for an exploration of those ideas, and see this presentation for some of the ideas in their work.
[402] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 214-223.
[403] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 214-218.
[404] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 230.
[405] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 231.
[406] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 247.
[407] See Dorrik Stow's Vanished Ocean, pp. 259-264. See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 225-230.
[408] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 229-230.
[409] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, p. 253.
[410] On the Great American Biotic Interchange, see Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 241-244, and Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 250-256. See Michael O. Woodburn's ""The Great American Biotic Interchange: Dispersals, Tectonics, Climate, Sea Level and Holding Pens", Journal of Mammalian Evolution, December 2010, volume 17, issue 4, pp. 245-264.
[411] See Donald Prothero's After the Dinosaurs, pp. 247-250.
[412] There is a pronounced resistance in anthropological circles toward the idea of culture among great apes. One chimpanzee researcher, Victoria, Horner, said, in frustration: "In anthropological terms culture is the human niche…These things are so exclusive from the get-go. If we want to understand our place in the animal kingdom, we need to understand that the chimp/human border is so slim. Culture is just the next step. At what point are people going to give in and say, Yes, we are apes?' And be able to handle that? Darwin's famous quote is that it's a difference of degree, not of kind. People are just hell-bent on it being a difference in kind." That quote is from Jon Cohen's Almost Chimpanzee, p. 175.
[413] See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree for an account of the history of Proconsul research, from the first fossil discoveries to 21[SUP]st[/SUP] century research and findings.
[414] See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree, pp. 37-42.
[415] See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree, pp. 186-187.
[416] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 90-91.
[417] See Clive Finlayson's The Humans Who Went Extinct, pp. 20-21.
[418] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, p. 255.
[419] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 96-97. See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree, p. 163.
[420] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 255-256. See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree, pp. 167, 196-199.
[421] See Clive Finlayson's The Humans Who Went Extinct, p. 9.
[422] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 100-103.
[423] See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree, p. 194. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, p. 2.
[424] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, p. 103.
[425] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, p. 103. See Clive Finlayson's The Humans Who Went Extinct, pp. 10-11.
[426] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 104-105.
[427] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 110-113.
[428] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 41.
[429] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 14-16.
[430] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 114-115.
[431] See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males, chapter 3.
[432] See, for instance, the human evolutionary tree in Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 42.
[433] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 98-102.
[434] See Thomas Suddendorf's The Gap, chapter 3.
[435] This is a prominent theme in Thomas Suddendorf's The Gap.
[436] See abstract of P.M. Kappeler's "Patterns of sexual dimorphism in body weight among prosimian primates", Folia Primatol (Basel), 1991; issue 3, volume 57, pp. 132-146.
[437] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, p. 44.
[438] See Richard C. Francis's Why Men Won't Ask for Directions. See Steven Pinker's The Blank Slate, chapter 6.
[439] See Richard W. Young's "Evolution of the human hand: the role of throwing and clubbing", Journal of Anatomy, January 2003, volume 2, issue 1, pp. 165-174.
[440] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 114, 126.
[441] See Peter B. deMenocal's "Climate Shocks", in Scientific American's special evolution issue titled, Evolution, The Human Saga, pp. 48-53, September 2014. See also his "Climate and Human Evolution", Science, volume 331, February 4, 2011, pp. 540-542. See also "A grassy trend in human ancestors' diets", ScienceDaily, June 3, 2013. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, chapter 3.
[442] See Alan Walker and Pat Shipman's The Ape in the Tree, pp. 109-112. See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, p. 125.
[443] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, p. 128. See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 47.
[444] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 47. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, pp. 57-61.
[445] See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males, pp. 46-47.
[446] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, pp. 55-60.
[447] See Stanley H. Ambrose's "Paleolithic Technology and Human Evolution", Science, March 2, 2001, volume 291, number 5509, pp. 1748-1753.
[448] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 13-14.
[449] See Dario Maestripieri's Machiavellian Intelligence, p. 61.
[450] See Dario Maestripieri's Machiavellian Intelligence, p. 144.
[451] See Elisabetta Visalberghi and Dorothy Fragaszy's "Learning how to Forage: Socially Biased Individual Learning and Niche Construction' in Wild Capuchin Monkeys", chapter six of Frans B. M. de Wall and Pier Francesco Ferrari, eds., The Primate Mind.
[452] See Susan Perry and Joseph H. Manson's Manipulative monkeys; The Capuchins of Lomas Barbudal, chapter 9.
[453] See Susan Perry and Joseph H. Manson's Manipulative monkeys; The Capuchins of Lomas Barbudal, chapter 8.
[454] See Carel van Schaik's "Why are some animals so smart?", in Scientific American, special edition titled "Becoming Human", September 2006.
[455] See Thomas Suddendorf's The Gap, chapter 9.
[456] See Marco Iacoboni's "The Human Mirror Neuron System and Its Role in Imitation and Empathy", chapter three of Frans B. M. de Wall and Pier Francesco Ferrari, eds., The Primate Mind.
[457] See Gary Stix's The "It" Factor", in Scientific American's special evolution issue titled, Evolution, The Human Saga, pp. 72-79, September 2014. See Steven Pinker's The Blank Slate, chapter 4. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, pp. 213-216.
[458] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, p. 42.
[459] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, pp. 56-57.
[460] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, p. 208.
[461] See Kimberley J. Hockings, et al.'s "Chimpanzees Share Forbidden Fruit", PLoS ONE, Published online September 12, 2007.
[462] Suzana Herculano-Houzel and Jon H. Kaas's "Gorilla and Orangutan Brains Conform to the Primate Cellular Scaling Rules: Implications for Human Evolution", Brain, Behavior, and Evolution, February 2011; volume 7, number 1, pp. 3344.
[463] See Karina Fonseca-Azevedo and Suzana Herculano-Houzel's "Metabolic constraint imposes tradeoff between body size and number of brain neurons in human evolution", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, November 6, 2012, volume 109, number 45, pp. 1857118576.
[464] R.I.M Dunbar and Susanne Shultz's "Understanding primate brain evolution", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, April 29, 2007, volume 362, number 1480, pp. 649-658.
[465] See M. Dworak et al.'s "Sleep and Brain Energy Levels: ATP changes during sleep", The Journal of Neuroscience, June 30, 2010, volume 30, number 26, pp. 9007-9016.
[466] See Karin Isler and Carel van Schaik's "Metabolic costs of brain size evolution", Biology Letters, 2006 December 22, 2006, volume 2, number 4, pp. 557560.
[467] See Michael D. Sockol, et al.'s "Chimpanzee locomotor energetics and the origin of human bipedalism", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, July 24, 2007, volume 104, number 30, pp. 1226512269. See Herman Pontzera, et al.'s "The metabolic cost of walking in humans, chimpanzees, and early hominins", Journal of Human Evolution, volume 56, issue 1, January 2009, pp. 4354. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, pp. 15-16.
[468] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, p. 17.
[469] See Leslie C. Aiello and Peter Wheeler's "The Expensive-Tissue Hypothesis," Current Anthropology, volume 36, number 2, April 1995, pp. 199-221.
[470] See Leslie C. Aiello and Peter Wheeler's "The Expensive-Tissue Hypothesis," Current Anthropology, volume 36, number 2, April 1995, pp. 199-221.
[471] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 117-118.
[472] See Dario Maestripieri's Machiavellian Intelligence, pp. 38-42, 72-73.
[473] See Ana Navarrete et al.'s "Energetics and the evolution of human brain size", Nature, December 1, 2011, volume 480, pp. 91-94.
[474] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 100-102.
[475] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 118-119.
[476] See Richard Wrangham's "Evolution of Coalitionary Killing", Yearbook Of Physical Anthropology, volume 110, Issue Supplement 29, pp. 130. 1999. See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males for an examination of male-inflicted violence in great apes.
[477] See Richard Wrangham's "Evolution of Coalitionary Killing", Yearbook Of Physical Anthropology, volume 110, Issue Supplement 29, pp. 130.
[478] See Nicolas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 22-27. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, pp. 109-110.
[479] See, for instance, Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, pp. 64, 68. In Clive Finlayson's The Humans Who Went Extinct, he strenuously argues that modern humans had nothing to do with the disappearance of Neanderthals, but the notions that modern humans drove Neanderthals to extinction, as well as Homo erectus in Asia, are constantly debated today.
[480] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 42; he calls the human family tree depicted there "highly speculative." Or see all the question marks in this human family tree.
[481] See Tracy L. Kivell, et al.'s "Australopithecus sediba Hand Demonstrates Mosaic Evolution of Locomotor and Manipulative Abilities", Science, September 9, 2011, volume 333, number 6048, pp. 1411-1417.
[482] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 64.
[483] See Johan Goudsblom's Fire and Civilization, p. 19.
[484] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 190-191.
[485] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 190-194.
[486] See Frederick L Coolidge and Thomas Wynn's "The effects of the tree-to-ground sleep transition in the evolution of cognition in early Homo", Before Farming: the archaeology and anthropology of hunter-gatherers, 2006, issue 4, article 11.
[487] See Jon Cohen's Almost Chimpanzee, pp. 277-284.
[488] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, p. 90.
[489] See Chris Organ, et al.'s "Phylogenetic rate shifts in feeding time during the evolution of Homo", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, August 30, 2011, volume 108, number 35, pp. 1455514559.
[490] See Karina Fonseca-Azevedo and Suzana Herculano-Houzel's "Metabolic constraint imposes tradeoff between body size and number of brain neurons in human evolution", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, November 6, 2012, volume 109, number 45, pp. 1857118576.
[491] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 92-93.
[492] See Francesco Berna, et al.'s "Microstratigraphic evidence of in situ fire in the Acheulean strata of Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape province, South Africa", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, May 15, 2012, volume 109, number 20, pp. 75937594. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, p. 112.
[493] See Peter Bellwood's First Migrants, pp. 47-48.
[494] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, p. 225.
[495] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 17-19.
[496] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, pp. 47-48.
[497] See Ian Tattersall's If I Had a Hammer", in Scientific American's special evolution issue titled, Evolution, The Human Saga, pp. 55-59, September 2014. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, chapter 9.
[498] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, p. 100.
[499] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 141-146.
[500] See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males, p. 224.
[501] See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males, p. 148.
[502] See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males, p. 159.
[503] See Jon Cohen's Almost Chimpanzee, p. 260.
[504] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 144-145.
[505] See Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson's Demonic Males, pp. 146-151, 166.
[506] See Tommaso Paoli's "The Absence of Sexual Coercion in Bonobos", chapter 16 of Martin Muller and Richard Wrangham, eds., Sexual Coercion in Primates and Humans.
[507] See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 144-147.
[508] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 154-158. See Lawrence H. Keeley's War Before Civilization, pp. 103-106. See Ian Tattersall's Masters of the Planet, pp. 152-154, 172-173.
[509] See Richard Wrangham's Catching Fire, p. 93.
[510] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, p. 268.
[511] See Peter Bellwood's First Migrants, p. 51.
[512] See Chris Stringer's Lone Survivors, pp. 199-201.
[513] See Peter Bellwood's First Migrants, chapter 3.
[514] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, chapters 4 and 5.
[515] See Nicholas Wade's The Faith Instinct, pp. 119-123.
[516] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, p. 16.
[517] The source for the below list is from an anthropology course. See another summary in the appendix of Steven Pinker's The Blank Slate.
UP (the Universal People) have mastered language, and UP's languages all have universal traits, such as:
Have nouns, verbs, and possessives;
Have a number of grammatical and semantic rules that are identical across all UP's languages, when there was no known reason for them to independently converge; there were other equally valid ways to structure sentences and grammar;
Have dualistic traits, when it is not required, such as no UP's language has single words for these three: good, not good, and bad; or bad, not bad, and good; UP's languages do not have single words with those intermediate meanings, but related to the poles instead; their languages also describe the middles between the extremes, and can grade them;
Have male and female terms;
Have time-related terms, in both linear and circular terms;
Newborns can be put into any culture on Earth and will grow up mastering the languages they were raised with.
UP all use their languages for similar purposes, such as:Have a number of grammatical and semantic rules that are identical across all UP's languages, when there was no known reason for them to independently converge; there were other equally valid ways to structure sentences and grammar;
Have dualistic traits, when it is not required, such as no UP's language has single words for these three: good, not good, and bad; or bad, not bad, and good; UP's languages do not have single words with those intermediate meanings, but related to the poles instead; their languages also describe the middles between the extremes, and can grade them;
Have male and female terms;
Have time-related terms, in both linear and circular terms;
Newborns can be put into any culture on Earth and will grow up mastering the languages they were raised with.
Use special forms of speech, including poems and oratory, and they have structural similarities;
Tell stories and myths, and their cultures have creation myths to explain how the world, and UP's role in it, came to be, and until the explanations of modern science appeared, all explanations had supernatural aspects to them;
Gossip;
Use humor and insults;
Use language to deceive, and others try to detect deceptive language, partly by inspecting non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions, posture, and gestures.
UP have universally understood facial expressions, such as smiles and frowns.Tell stories and myths, and their cultures have creation myths to explain how the world, and UP's role in it, came to be, and until the explanations of modern science appeared, all explanations had supernatural aspects to them;
Gossip;
Use humor and insults;
Use language to deceive, and others try to detect deceptive language, partly by inspecting non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions, posture, and gestures.
UP's infants have a fear of loud noises, and by nearly one year of age, they fear all strangers.
UP have a natural fear of snakes.
UP are seen by their societies as individuals who commit acts intentionally and have a sense of personal responsibility for their actions.
UP have a similar conception of age, which is not the only way to think about age.
The primary social unit of UP is mothers and their children.
UP have a sexual division of labor, with women doing most childrearing and men usually performing strenuous/dangerous labor to economically provide for the society and/or social unit, or protect it.
UP have institutions that grant males preferential sexual access to females; and all have standards of appropriate potential mates the incest taboo is not quite universal, but standards of appropriate unions are.
UP have standards of sexual attractiveness which usually relate to a woman's ability to bear healthy offspring and a man's ability to economically provide for and protect the primary social unit.
UP have hygiene standards;
UP's men commit most violence and men dominate all societies.
UP's fathers and young sons compete for the mother's attention, which creates a tension that has been called the Oedipus complex.
UP's senior kin are partly responsible for socializing offspring, and UP recognize kin relationships;
UP's children learn partly via mimicry, and play and fight; their activities help develop adult skills.
UP dance and make music, with those activities often conjoined, and UP have music for children.
UP's societies control fire and make tools and shelter.
UP are territorial and judge others by their own standards.
UP societies have complex political scheming.
UP engage in reciprocal economic exchanges, and can retaliate when exchanges are unequal or other personal inequalities are not addressed.
UP plan for the future.
UP distinguish right from wrong, and regulate their public affairs.
UP groups have leaders, whom the group members want to be generous.
UP societies are never democratic or autocratic, so all are oligarchic.
UP make promises and can empathize.
Envy is common among UP, and all societies try to minimize it.
UP think that they are more objective than they really are.
UP have laws, particularly against murder and rape, although in warfare those strictures are often relaxed.
People who offend the laws are punished.
Conflict is common, and UP's societies try to reduce it, and conflicts are structured around in-group versus out-group dynamics, with different ethical standards for dealing with in-group and out-group people.
UP have etiquette and hospitality as ideals.
UP's societies have customary behaviors.
UP's societies have standard eating times and other daily routines, and occasions for feasts.
UP's sexual activities and bodily excretion are conducted in private.
UP have fashion and style their hair.
UP have taboos on certain foods and utterances.
UP's societies anthropomorphize phenomena and have beliefs that are demonstrably false.
UP practiced magic to protect life and attract the opposite sex, and have theories of luck.
UP have rituals, and some are regarding status changes, such as rites of passage and marriage; they mourn their dead.
UP have supernatural beliefs and believe in extra-physical activities.
UP are still materialists, and value property and how it transfers to others, including descendants
UP dream and attempt to interpret the dreams.
UP try to explain sickness and death, and know that they are connected. They try to heal the sick and use medicines.
UP practice divination and try to control the weather.
[518] See David Cogswell's Chomsky for Beginners, p. 44.
[519] See Randy Allen Harris's The Linguistics Wars.
[520] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 37-40.
[521] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, chapter 3.
[522] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, chapter 5.
[523] See Nicholas Wade's The Faith Instinct, chapter 9.
[524] See Steven L. Kuhn's and Mary C. Steiner's "The antiquity of hunter-gatherers", p. 102 in chapter 5 of Hunter-Gatherers: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, Catherine Panter-Brick, et al., eds.
[525] See Joachim Radkau's Nature and Power, p. 47.
[526] See Shepard Krech III's, The Ecological Indian, chapter 5.
[527] See Richard Cowen's History of Life, pp. 286-287. See Sharon Levy's Once and Future Giants, pp. 79-105. See Jared Diamond's Guns, Germs, and Steel, pp. 42-44. See Tim Flannery's The Future Eaters, pp. 180-194. See Joachim Radkau's Nature and Power, p. 47. See William F. Ruddiman's Plows, Plagues, and Petroleum, chapter 6. See Charles A.S. Hall and Kent A. Klitgaard's Energy and the Wealth of Nations, p. 44.
[528] Paul L. Koch and Anthony D. Barnosky's "Late Quaternary Extinctions: State of the Debate", The Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 2006, volume 37, pp. 215-250. A few months after this chapter was first drafted, a new paper confirmed my views. The authors cited some of the very same papers that I thought were seriously flawed, which concluded that climate change killed off the Australian and South American megafauna, for instance. See Christopher Sandom, et al.'s "Global late Quaternary megafauna extinctions linked to humans, not climate change", Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, July 2014, volume 281, number 1787, 20133254. The paper was first published on June 4, 2014.
[529] See Clive Finlayson's The Humans Who Went Extinct, chapter 4.
[530] The loyal opposition to the idea of human agency in the megafauna extinctions is led by Donald Grayson, who has challenged Paul Martin's overkill hypothesis from the early days. See Sharon Levy's Once and Future Giants, chapter 1. A recent paper that Grayson coauthored is Stephen Wroe, et al.'s "Climate change frames debate over the extinction of megafauna in Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea)", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2013. Wroe has long challenged the notion of human-caused megafauna extinctions. See, for instance, Stephen Wroe's "Would the Australian megafauna be extinct had there been no climate change?" Quaternary Science Reviews, 2007, volume 26, pp. 565567. See Wroe's paper coauthored with Judith Field, "A review of the evidence for a human role in the extinction of Australian megafauna and an alternative interpretation", Quaternary Science Reviews, 2006, volume 25, pp. 26922703. They have made careers out of challenging the notion of human agency in Australian megafauna extinctions.
[531] See Gavin J. Prideaux, et al.'s "An arid-adapted middle Pleistocene vertebrate fauna from south-central Australia", Nature, January 25, 2007, volume 445, pp. 422-425. See Richard G. Roberts, et al.'s "New Ages for the Last Australian Megafauna: Continent-Wide Extinction About 46,000 Years Ago", Science, June 8, 2001, volume 292, pp. 1888-1892. See Susan Rule, et al.'s "The Aftermath of Megafaunal Extinction: Ecosystem Transformation in Pleistocene Australia", Science, March 23, 2012, volume 335, number 6075, pp. 1483-1486. See David Biello's "Big Kill, Not Big Chill, Finished Off Giant Kangaroos", Scientific American, March 22, 2012.
[532] See Lawrence H. Keeley's War Before Civilization, pp. 5-15.
[533] See Lawrence H. Keeley's War Before Civilization, pp. vii-24.
[534] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 60-63.
[535] See Irina Pugach, et al.'s "Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, January 29, 2013, volume 110, number 5, pp. 1803-1808.
[536] See Raymond C. Kelly's Warless Societies and the Origin of War, chapter 3.
[537] See Nicholas Wade's The Faith Instinct, chapter 5.
[538] See Robert Boyd, et al.'s "Coordinated Punishment of Defectors Sustains Cooperation and Can Proliferate When Rare", Science, April 30, 2010, Volume 328, number 5978, pp. 617-620. See also this article. Controlled experiments have shown that people are vigilant of cheaters and will punish them if they can, even at significant cost to themselves.
[539] See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 67.
[540] See Tim Flannery's The Future Eaters, pp. 189-190, relating an anecdote in which Charles Darwin watched a boy kill his dinner in the Galapagos Islands by killing birds that came to a well to drink. The area had been settled for several years, and the boy had already made it a regular practice to kill his meals that way in the same place.
[541] See Tim Flannery's The Future Eaters, pp. 187-194.
[542] See Michael F. Hammer, et. al.'s "Genetic evidence for archaic admixture in Africa", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, September 13, 2011, volume 108, number 37, pp. 15123-15128.
[543] See Peter Bellwood's First Migrants, p. 67. See Nicholas Wade's Before the Dawn, pp. 94-95.
[544] See Ian Tattersall's The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE, pp. 96-105. See Clive Finlayson's The Humans Who Went Extinct, chapters 6 and 7. See Brian Fagan's Cro-Magnon, pp. 130-131. See Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews's The Complete World of Human Evolution, pp. 164-165.
[545] See S. Péan's "Mammoth and subsistence practices during the Mid Upper Palaeolithic of Central Europe (Moravia, Czech Republic)", The Proceedings of The World of Elephants - International Congress, Rome 2001. See Brian Fagan's Cro-Magnon, chapter 9. See abstract of JiÅ™Ä±Ì Svoboda, et al.'s "Mammoth bone deposits and subsistence practices during Mid-Upper Palaeolithic in Central Europe: three cases from Moravia and Poland", Quaternary International, 2005, Volumes 126-128, 2005, pp.
"The philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways. The point, however, is to change it." Karl Marx
"He would, wouldn't he?" Mandy Rice-Davies. When asked in court whether she knew that Lord Astor had denied having sex with her.
“I think it would be a good idea” Ghandi, when asked about Western Civilisation.
"He would, wouldn't he?" Mandy Rice-Davies. When asked in court whether she knew that Lord Astor had denied having sex with her.
“I think it would be a good idea” Ghandi, when asked about Western Civilisation.